Can I jump start a 24V truck battery from a 12V car battery without damage to the car?

No, not normally. Attaching the 24V battery to the 12V battery could easily cause the jumper wires to spark, melt, and probably explode the 12V battery. It’s very dangerous. You’d need 2 X 12V batteries connected in series to match the trucks 24V system safely and start the truck safely. This is if the 24V battery is made-up of 1 single battery, like those from Remy and many other companies out there.